Introduction
During the 18th century, Serbia and Banat shared several common features. They both shared a vital communication route (and at the same time, barrier), the Danube, and formed the border between the Ottoman and Austrian empires, serving as the site of their long-lasting conflicts, which resulted in being sparsely populated, especially in Banat, due to its marshy terrain.[i] Both were subject to various influences. However, due to the Austrian-Turkish wars and its own struggles with the Ottoman Empire, Serbia remained in a zone of instability deep into the 19th century, while Banat, especially from the mid-18th century onward, gradually developed economically in line with mercantilism and later with physiocratic theory and practice.[ii]
Waves of German settlement, which resulted in stronger interactions with the Serbs, were an important factor in this development. Apart from establishing closer connections between different nations, the appearance of different languages, customs, clothing, the practice of new crafts and agricultural activities, another result of German colonization was the introduction of unfamiliar foods and dietary practices, including the production and consumption of beer.[iii]
The Production of Beer in Pančevo until the Mid-19th Century
The most significant centres in southern Banat and northern Serbia, Pančevo (Pantschowa in German, Pancsova in Hungarian) and Belgrade, although geographically close, had different rhythms and levels of social and economic development due to historical circumstances. For Pančevo, the permanent end of Ottoman rule following the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718) allowed economic progress despite challenging living conditions, unproductive years and diseases. This development included activities related to the production of beer.
The Ottomans were expelled from Pančevo at the end of 1716, and Banat was placed under the jurisdiction of the Court Chamber (Hofkammer). Due to the growing German population and the need to meet their daily requirements, the Chamber decided to initiate the production of beer and brandy (rakija in Serbian). On 12 January 1722, a Jew from Pressburg (Prešporok in Slovakian, Pozsony in Hungarian), Abraham Köppisch, obtained the right to establish workshops for brewing beer and distilling brandy in the district’s seats, including Pančevo, Nova Palanka (now Banatska Palanka), and Caransebeș (Karansebesch in German, Karánsebes in Hungarian). He built a brewery in Pančevo and began production in May 1722.[iv] However, the production was low without a skilled master brewer. The Chamber was dissatisfied, so in November 1725 and again in June 1726, it concluded a contract with the Jew Wolf Menzer for 20,000 florins. In the following months, the Köppisch brothers and Menzer took turns as lessees. As more Christians became interested in brewing, the Chamber decided to terminate the leasing rights for Jews in November 1726. Therefore, in March 1727, a contract was concluded with Phillip Bauer, who had already been brewing beer in Caransebeș and Orșova (Orschowa in German, Rušava in Serbian, Orsova in Hungarian).[v]
Bauer improved the production and beer quality. It is not known whether he renewed the lease after three years, but in early 1733, the new lessees of Banat’s breweries were the judge from Timișoara (Temeswar in German, Temišvar in Serbian, Temesvár in Hungarian), Peter Solderer and carpenter Nikolaus Wiedmesser. A valuable inventory was drawn up during the handover of the brewery in Pančevo.[vi] Menzer became the lessee of all breweries and distilleries again from February 1735. It is not known how long he remained the lessee, but during the 1737–1739 war, the brewery was damaged and needed to be rebuilt. In 1740 (for only 200 florins annually), the Pančevo clerk Knoll became the new lessee.[vii]
Sources provide only scant information on the brewery’s operations in the period that followed. The new lessee from 1760 was Sebastian Kratzeisen (?–1784), the lessee of breweries in [Veliki] Bečkerek (today Zrenjanin; Groß-Betschkerek in German, Nagybecskerek in Hungarian, Becicherecul Mare in Romanian) and Zemun (Semlin in German, Zimony in Hungarian). Since he lived in Bečkerek, he subleased the Pančevo brewery to Johann Weber from Osterbuch in Bavaria, who was already working there.[viii] After a change in administrative organization in 1779 placed Banat under the administration of Hungary, the Chamber began selling properties at public auctions, so Kratzeisen bought three breweries in 1781 (probably together with his son Joseph, who was active in the Zemun brewery).[ix] His daughter, Franciska (?–1789), who was married to Pančevo brewer and philanthropist Joseph Krautwaschl, who was active in public life, likely brought the brewery into the marriage as her dowry. During the new war with Turkey (Austro-Turkish War of 1788–1791), the brewery was damaged and ceased operation. Krautwaschl was not skilled in production, and he had long-standing disputes with innkeepers who did not want to sell bad beer at a high price. One of the key reasons for the difficulties was also the low price of wine, which was cheaper than beer at the time. He tried to secure funds by opening a beer house, which the Magistrate did not permit,[x] as well as by improving trade, but this was insufficient to meet the needs of the brewery. Therefore, in 1810, he sold the brewery for 60,000 florins to the butcher from Bela Crkva (Weißkirchen in German, Fehértemplom in Hungarian, Biserica Albă in Romanian), Valentin Beger (1767–1855), who married a Pančevo citizen, Anna, the widow of military supplier Karl Haißer in 1802.[xi] Beger also faced problems with distribution, expensive raw materials, and the rising cost of beer. He unsuccessfully applied for permission to open a beer house. In early 1814, he sold the brewery for 36,000 florins to his stepson Ignaz Haißer. He encountered difficulties just like his predecessors, and only in the late 1820s did his business improve when he obtained the right to retail beer. Nonetheless, production, which amounted to only about 2,400 buckets (1,358.4 hectolitres) annually, was inconsistent. He did not have sufficient expertise and no particular affinity for brewing, as he was more involved in managing the Kudritz estate near Vršac (Werschetz in German, Versec in Hungarian, Vârșeț in Romanian), which he had purchased with Beger, and which granted them noble status in 1838. Therefore, in 1847, he handed over the brewery to his sister’s son, Ignaz Weifert (1826–1911), which proved to be a turning point in beer production not only in Pančevo but also in Belgrade.[xii]
Meanwhile, another brewery was established in Pančevo, despite Haißer’s objections. After analysing the brewing industry, the Magistrate awarded brewing rights to innkeeper Jozef Geiger in 1838, and he sold the brewery in 1851 to Vincenz Wiedmann from Bela Crkva. However, the beer quality did not improve. The reason for this was not the brewer’s lack of willingness but Pančevo’s location, where, due to two large rivers, it was impossible to dig deep enough cellars to maintain low temperatures.[xiii]
The Emergence and Return of Beer Brewing in Belgrade
During the Great Turkish War (1683–1699) and the brief Austrian rule over Belgrade (1688–1690), some Germans settled in the area, but the sources do not contain data that allow for a definite reconstruction of their economic activities. In the new war, after the Austrian army captured Belgrade in August 1717 and established the Kingdom of Serbia, more than 460 Germans moved to the city. They were settled in German (Danubian) Belgrade, which had a magistrate and a mayor, and they initiated economic activities.[xiv] Along with other industries, beer production emerged,[xv] and during the first decade, at least 13 master brewers (Brauer, Braumeister) worked in the city, and at least four establishments were breweries.[xvi]
The first brewer in Belgrade was probably Johann Leibenegger who, on 24 September 1717, obtained permission to lease a building in which he built a brewery. When he died in 1719, he was succeeded by his stepson Ygnaty (Ignatio) Lauttenbacher, which his Ygnaty’s wife inherited after his death in 1727. Another brewer with the same surname, Joseph Lauttenbacher, is mentioned who, in 1720, obtained permission to build a brewery in order to serve the many potters and sailors. Belgrade also had a brewer named Antoni Schwöller who lived in the 5th district of the city and was granted the right to build a brewery. After his death in 1720, his brother Adam took over and continued brewing even after 1728. Another early brewer was Antoni Pest, and after his death in 1722, his wife married brewer Andreas Heinisch, who brewed until Köppisch obtained a monopoly. After Heinisch’s death (probably in 1728), the widow married brewer Johann Kahler, who sought permission to resume brewing. Martin Seyfried also brewed beer; in April 1723, he bought a plot with five buildings for 1,200 guilders,[xvii] which he sold to Ygnaty Lauttenbacher for the same price after a year, and the new buyer (for 800 florins) in February 1727 was the aforementioned Andreas Heinisch. Finally, A. Köppisch built the Imperial-Chamber Brewery in 1724 for an annual rent of 160,000 florins and obtained a monopoly.[xviii]
The breweries in Austrian Belgrade were “manual,” and the largest, the Chamber Brewery (Kaiserliches Brauhaus), was managed by the Köppisch brothers. After its bankruptcy in 1736, authorities allowed anyone to brew beer for a fee of 15 groschen (56.25 kreuzers) per bucket.[xix] However, Austria’s defeat in the 1737–1739 war and the return of Ottoman rule interrupted brewing in Belgrade for a whole century, and it only reappeared in 1834 as an imported product from the Austrian town of Zemun.[xx] Soon, it became a product of domestic craftsmanship, rapidly becoming an integral part of the most important Serbian religious and national custom, the family patron saint celebration (slava).[xxi]
The first brewery in autonomous Serbia was established in 1839 by a miller from Sremska Mitrovica ([Syrmisch-]Mitrowitz in German), Johann Weinhappl, originally from Bohemia, and it operated from 1840 until the owner’s death in 1848. Already during 1840–1841, the brewery of Serbian Prince Miloš Obrenović’s wife, Ljubica (1788–1843), began operation. It was known as Prince’s or Big Brewery and had an inn and a garden. The brewery was managed by the princess’ son, Prince Mihailo Obrenović (1823–1868), and the first manager he appointed was brewer Konstantin Hadija, Jr., the husband of a close relative and the grandson of the owner of the Zemun Brewery. He attempted to secure a monopoly, which the state council did not accept, and after Prince Mihailo was removed from power in 1842, the brewery was leased to various individuals. In 1845, the brewery was damaged by a fire but was quickly restored. Finally, in January 1865, a brewer from Pančevo, Ignaz Weifert, leased the brewery.[xxii]
In Belgrade, two new breweries were built in 1845. The first one near the Danube, Kumanudi’s Brewery, operated until 1862.[xxiii] The second one, located at the bottom of Cetinjska Street and called Small Brewery, began operating in 1850 with equipment brought from Weinhappl’s brewery.[xxiv] Several lessees took over the brewery, including an Austrian citizen in 1854, due to whom Austria, invoking reciprocity, compelled Serbia to abolish the beer tax.[xxv] In 1888, Ignjat Bajloni, originally from Eastern Bohemia, leased the brewery, and it became the second most important brewery industry in Belgrade and Serbia, the main competitor of the factory that the Weifert family would establish but also their future business partner.[xxvi]
The Early Brewing Activities of the Weifert Family in Pančevo and Belgrade
The Weifert family entered the brewing business through a combination of circumstances, but all their subsequent activities were the result of thoughtful planning. Georg Weifert, Sr. (1796–1887),[xxvii] a tanner and merchant from Vršac, a descendant of immigrants from the present-day border region between Bavaria and Austria, moved to Pančevo in 1825. His wife, whom he married in January 1824, Magdalena Haißer, the sister of a brewery owner, was from Pančevo. The town offered favourable business opportunities within the Military Frontier and was close to Belgrade and Serbia, which, parallel to its gradual liberation from Ottoman rule, was expanding its economic activities.[xxviii] The family soon expanded through the births of their sons Ignaz Karl (1828–1895), Georg, Jr. (1829–1853), and Valentin (1833–?), and the eldest son’s biography testifies to his dedication to brewing.
Ignaz Weifert received his primary education in Pančevo and apprenticed in brewing with his uncle, Ignaz Haißer. He later furthered his expertise. After returning, he married Anne Seitz (1828–1875) from Vršac in 1847.[xxix] Ignaz began applying his professional knowledge in the brewery shortly after taking over.[xxx] Despite unfavourable excise laws on beer and brandy, in effect in Pančevo from 1851, Ignaz made significant progress in the quantity and quality of production. He successfully competed with other brewers (as well as with vintners, who were exempt from excise taxes), navigated difficult transportation conditions as poor roads often hindered deliveries in winter, and dealt with challenges in acquiring high-quality raw materials. In 1852, he achieved recognition when he obtained civic rights and was accepted into the brewing guild in Pest. Constantly modernizing the brewery, he enabled the production of bottom-fermented beer to begin in 1857. Production in the brewery increased from the initial 3,000 buckets (1,698 hectolitres) of top-fermented beer (ale) to 10,000, then to 20,000 units of bottom-fermented (lager),[xxxi] with a tendency of growth. The brewery employed six to twelve apprentices and labourers, whom Ignaz voluntarily contributed to the hospital fund for free medical care. His efforts in modernization were aimed at attaining factory status.[xxxii]
Meanwhile, a new candidate for brewing appeared, Anton Hermann Gramberg, whose son, Ferdinand apprenticed in brewing and continued to improve his skills. Ignaz believed that the new brewery would not affect quality or prices since there was already competition. Nevertheless, new regulations on industrial enterprises streamlined the establishment process, leading to the approval of Gramberg to start a brewery within two years. Ignaz continued to expand his brewery in 1858 by constructing six outlets for draft beer, a kitchen, a storage room, and a refrigeration unit, valued at 63,900 florins. Later, he decided to collaborate with his competition, giving his oldest daughter Anna to Ferdinand in marriage. The Gramberg brewery did not materialize in the end, and Ignaz preserved the family’s capital, gaining a qualified expert through his son-in-law. Therefore, thanks to Ignaz’s hard work and expertise, as well as his cleverness and willingness to make personal sacrifices, the brewery experienced significant growth and provided a solid economic foundation for the family. This not only influenced the development and dynamics of the economy in Pančevo and Banat but also in Serbia and Yugoslavia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[xxxiii]
The leasing of Prince’s Brewery in Belgrade on 31 January 1865[xxxiv] was the result of a vital and strategic decision by Ignaz Weifert to open a business point in rapidly awakening Serbia.[xxxv] Ignaz was the last leaseholder of Prince’s Brewery, as another important feature of the Weifert family, a tendency towards investment and modernization, influenced the initiation of a new industrial-type brewery. Managing two breweries in different states would have been a complex task, so Ignaz decided to hand over operations in Belgrade to his son Georg (1850–1937). This intention was closely tied to a third characteristic of the Weifert family—specialized education. Thus, Georg was being trained specifically to prepare him for the transition of the brewery.[xxxvi]
A few days after initiating activities in Belgrade, Ignaz advertised the sale of his beers (and spirits) in newspapers, highlighting good service, quality merchandise, and old prices. The beer “Unterzeig” cost 50 commercial groschen (10 dinars) per bucket, and the “Märzen” 65 groschen (13 dinars) per bucket.[xxxvii] However, prices quickly dropped by 1 dinar per bucket, so a litre of “Unterzeig” cost 0.16 and “Märzen” 0.21 dinars.[xxxviii] Although there are few documents about the results of the operation of Prince’s Brewery’s during Ignaz Weifert’s lease, the manual production capacity could not have been more than a few thousand hectolitres annually. Sales were undoubtedly good, and the demands of the market continued to rise. Factors influencing beer consumption included the growing population of Serbia and Belgrade,[xxxix] as well as the increasing popularity of beer among citizens. On the downside were the economic structure of the Serbian population, primarily consisting of peasants, poor transportation conditions (the first railway line was not opened until 1884), and the prices of other alcoholic beverages, particularly wine and slivovitz brandy.[xl]
Ignaz expanded the range of services and offered beer in special bottles from 1869 onward, priced at 0.4 dinars in the brewery and 0.64 dinars outside. The brewery also had a large ice production facility and it hosted various entertainment events, including theatre performances, in the spacious hall and well-maintained garden.[xli] Since Ignaz could not directly manage the brewery, he appointed Leopold Reichel, the former leaseholder of Prince’s Brewery, as his proxy.[xlii] Ignaz was rewarded for his achievements with a certificate of commendation for his beer at the Second Exhibition of Regional Products and Handicrafts in 1871.[xliii]
The Industrialization of the Pančevo Brewery
In the spring of 1857, Ignaz adapted and modernized the brewery, which consisted of various production and auxiliary buildings, warehouses, employee residences, a public steam bath building, a garden with a pavilion, and more. He modernized the production process with a 6-horsepower (4.41 kilowatt) Vincenz Prick steam engine, which included two steam boilers. More than 20 people were constantly employed. The brewery was regarded as the most modern in the region, and it was the only one southeast of Pest capable of producing lager beer. The magistrate estimated the value of its assets to be over 198,000 florins, and the establishment of industrial production was deemed solid. In the fall of 1857, the provincial command of Timișoara granted it the title of a provincial factory with state rights. The formal status of an industrial enterprise and the name “I. M. Weifert” were confirmed in the protocol of October 1863.[xliv]
Industrialization allowed the brewery to emerge as the most significant brewery in Banat. With an annual production of around 11,300 hectolitres, it became one of the top five breweries in Hungary,[xlv] despite challenging transportation conditions. The products were of high quality, and in 1866, lager and “Märzen” beers received high accolades at the agricultural fair in Vienna. Until 1872, beer (and brandy) production remained consistent. Most of the production was exported to Serbia, Wallachia, and the Ottoman Empire (75–80 per cent of beer and 40–59 per cent of brandy). With the opening of the beer factory in Belgrade, entrusted to Ignaz’s son Georg, the Pančevo Brewery lost the Serbian market. Due to conflicts between Austria-Hungary and Romania about overprotective tariffs between 1886–1891, it also lost the market in Wallachia. Production varied significantly between 4,228 and 8,201 hectolitres over the next few years, but eventually reached nearly 13,999 hectolitres by 1890, steadily growing until the Great Depression.[xlvi]
Ignaz Weifert achieved more than just the status of an industrialist. He was the first manufacturer in a wide stretch of Southeastern Europe to strive for fair labour relations with his employees, providing them with health insurance. He was actively engaged in public activities, participating in municipal government work, and was an advocate for the Serbian People’s Progressive Party.[xlvii] He invested in his son’s education, ensuring that Georg and Hugo received higher education in brewing, preparing them to inherit the family business. Finally, his brewery served as a nursery for experts, such as the Bavarian Jozef Eichinger, who worked at the Pančevo Brewery from 1867–1870 before developing local beer production in Valjevo and managing his brewery from 1874 onwards.[xlviii]
Ignaz intended the Pančevo Brewery for his younger son, Hugo. After returning from his studies in 1876, Hugo became the manager, formally taking over the brewery in 1878. However, Hugo fell ill and died in 1885, and Ignaz returned to leading the brewery. He initiated investments that expanded production capacity and output. New cellars were built to store the beer, replacing the old ones frequently flooded by the Tamiš River (Temesch in German, Temes in Hungarian, Timiș in Romanian). Additionally, ice houses were constructed in 1891 to store ice year-round. At the beginning of the 20th century, the product range was expanded to include bottled beer. In 1906, Ignaz modernized the brewing tanks and the steam engine, introducing a dynamo machine. In 1908, a new air compressor was purchased, and in 1910 a blacksmith’s shop, a drier and a malt tumbler were built. That same year, he appointed his grandson, Adolf Gramberg, who had been educated at Weihenstephan in Bavaria, as the brewery’s representative. Investments between 1905 and 1910 increased production from 14,130 to 21,043 hectolitres. The number of employees nearly doubled, and the wages of unskilled workers increased from 60 to 84 crowns (Kronen), while the highest-paid master workers’ wages rose from 204 to 300 crowns.[xlix]
In 1911, Ignaz Weifert passed away. His estate was divided among several heirs. Anton Gramberg was again appointed as the brewery’s representative, while Georg Weifert was entrusted with ownership and administration. The individual company was protocolled in 1912 under the same name but as a joint stock company. The change did not hinder the brewery’s operations. By 1913, production had grown to 32,107 hectolitres, and preparations for further modernization were underway. Although the outbreak of the World War I disrupted their plans, in 1916, an ice factory was erected, and work began on installing sewage systems for wastewater management. The war caused some fluctuations in the number of employees and production volume, but production started increasing again shortly after the war ended.[l]
Industrial Production in Belgrade
Just a few years after leasing the Prince’s Brewery, Ignaz Weifert began thinking about building a factory in Belgrade. Even though as a foreigner, he did not have the right to own real estate in Serbia, he received verbal support from the Belgrade governor, Jakov Tucaković in 1870. He purchased a plot of land on the outskirts of the city and began preparations for construction in the summer of 1871. In March 1872, the municipality recognized that the brewery’s construction was important for Belgrade and the growth of domestic production. They allowed land regulation and negotiated the parcel allocation needed for the brewery, with the condition that Georg would be listed as the owner. This would address the issue of nationality, as it had been decided within the family that he would become a Serbian citizen after completing his education.[li]
Georg Weifert (Đorđe Vajfert in Serbian), after completing elementary school and the Realgymnasium in Pančevo, finished a trade school in Pest and studied brewing at the Landwirtschaftliche Zentralschule in Weihenstephan, Bavaria between 1868 and 1872.[lii] He married Maria Gassner from Győr (Raab in German) and in February 1873 he became a Serbian citizen. He then assumed the management of The First Serbian Steam Brewery, a modern factory equipped with two steam boilers and machines totalling 12 horsepower (8.94 kilowatt). Over the following years, the brewery was expanded multiple times, and capable masters led the production, ensuring quality and good results. At the Fourth Exhibition of Regional Products and Handicrafts in Belgrade in 1874, Weifert received a commendation for excellent beer and brewing products. The British Legation in Belgrade noted in 1886 that his brewery was doing very well, that brewing was becoming a significant economic factor, and that beer was a beloved beverage among Serbs.[liii]
Weifert maintained strict requirements regarding the raw materials in order to preserve beer quality. He used only a small portion of the highest-quality domestic barley, while good barley and hops were usually imported. Weifert’s beers were of high quality and, in some aspects, comparable to the best European beers. They were also consistent, thanks to laboratory analysis of the raw materials used, which determined the subsequent processing method. At the end of the 19th century, the brewery had modern machinery and equipment mainly from the AGK (Braunschweig), MAN (Nürnberg), and LCS (Gummersbach) factories, as well as from Linde’s Eismaschinen ice factory. In 1897, the brewery had a capital investment of 1,200,000 dinars, a total of 75 horsepower (55.17 kilowatt), and 68 employees working 12-hour days. The total production value reached 672,000 dinars. Beer prices were influenced by a variety of factors. Excise taxes contributed to keeping beer prices high, but this was further exacerbated by using more advanced technology, product sensitivity, which required suitable temperatures during production, transport, and storage, and the low prices of wine and plum brandy.[liv]
Weifert continuously expanded his activities, enriched his product offerings, and stimulated sales. In 1874, he opened a branch in Šabac (Schabatz in German), where one could purchase beer of the same quality as in Belgrade. In Kostolac (Caștelu in Romanian) and Niš, ice factories were opened, and coal and flour were traded within the brewery. In March 1887, he offered beer in bottles at the factory price even for smaller quantities, and in early April 1909, he introduced Easter beer with a specific reddish-brown colour, claiming that it was not a copy of the Bavarian dark Salvator or Schwarzbier, but that it matched them in quality.[lv]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the brewing industry was not in a privileged category, meaning it could not expect to receive state benefits. Although the total number of breweries did not increase (it actually dropped from 12 to 10 between 1888 and 1900), modernization increased production and the number of employees. From 1888 to 1908, the number of brewery workers increased by 149 per cent (to 364 employees), and production increased by 157 per cent (from 45,055 to 108,398 hectolitres). However, exports (2.5 per cent of production) and beer imports (4.99 per cent of domestic production) remained low, while beer consumption per capita increased by 71 per cent from 1.89 litres in 1889 to 3.22 litres in 1908. Most employees and production were concentrated in the two breweries in Belgrade (Weifert’s and Bajloni’s), which accounted for 79.5 per cent of the total beer production in Serbia in 1893 and 76.7 per cent in 1908.[lvi]
Prior to World War I, Weifert had been the co-owner of the breweries in Sremska Mitrovica and Niš. In 1913, he and his main competitor, Ignjat Bajloni, participated in founding the Serbian Joint-Stock Company for the Beer, Malt, and Ice Industry and he became its president.[lvii] The brewery in Belgrade suffered significant damage during the war. Weifert fully committed himself to his role as governor of the National Bank of Serbia, a position he held from 1890 until 1902 and again from 1912 to 1914/1918, and he left Serbia with the government and the army in 1915. Upon his return, he undertook an extensive reconstruction and expansion of the brewery.[lviii]
Epilogue
After World War I, the Pančevo brewery and the Belgrade brewery found themselves in the same state and under the administration of Georg Weifert, evolving into joint-stock companies. Although they survived the consequences of the Great Depression, the nationalization carried out after World War II led to the removal of the last family members from their business. Nevertheless, the influence and glory of the Weifert family, especially Georg Weifert, left a lasting impact on future generations.
Weifert’s brewing activities had numerous consequences that were not directly related to beverage production. In the quest for energy for the brewery, Weifert acquired a coal mine in Kostolac in 1881. In addition to modernizing production, he improved the transportation and urban conditions in the surrounding areas. He also promoted social protection for employees, constructing a sustainable workers’ settlement.[lix] Thus, brewing indirectly generated broader development in energy, transportation, economics, and social welfare. Weifert’s achievements in brewing also earned him a great personal reputation, in addition to being perceived not only as a businessman but as a generous philanthropist.[lx] He was a member or part of the management (often the founder and contributor) of numerous social, national, humanitarian, cultural, educational and other associations.[lxi] He left behind economic and civil structures, still-rich deposits of ores, valuable collections of numismatics and maps. Weifert remained an “acceptable capitalist” even during socialism,[lxii] and the memory of a man who successfully nurtured German and Serbian identities at the same time is still alive, as evidenced by numerous anecdotes, the names of beer types, a 1000-dinar banknote featuring his likeness, commemorative monographs, newspaper articles, monuments, street and square names.
Conclusion
Beer was brought – or reintroduced – to the regions of Banat and northern Serbia due to the Austrian expansion to the southeast at the beginning of the 18th century. In the main centres, Belgrade and Pančevo, beer production as an important daily commodity quickly began. In a complex interaction between the incoming German population and the existing Serbian population, the culture of beer consumption and brewing methods were transferred. The production of beer was based on leasing rights granted by the Court Chamber. In Pančevo, beer production started in 1722 and continued uninterrupted, with only minor disruptions. After the initial breweries established by people of Jewish descent, Germans took over beer production, dominating the industry, including the phase of industrialization of brewing activities. In Austrian-controlled Belgrade, which was an important military stronghold, craft and trade centre, several breweries opened in a brief period starting from 1717. At least 13 people were involved in brewing during the first decade. Beer production progressed until the defeat in the war of 1736–1739, when the Austrian army withdrew, and beer disappeared from Belgrade for an entire century. The new period of brewing was not an imported idea but stemmed from the needs of Serbian citizens in Belgrade and Serbia. Beginning in 1840, several breweries began operating.
The Weifert family entered the brewing industry due to a combination of family and business circumstances. Ignaz, who initiated the brewing activity and transformed it into an industry, and his son Georg, who turned the industry into a source of much broader industrialization and modernization, not only for Pančevo and Belgrade but for the entire country, were characterized by several strategically important traits. The most significant ones were investments in (self)education and specialized work, continuous and extensive investment activities, and a tendency toward modernization. When these strong business characteristics were combined with a commitment to social care, philanthropy, and a high level of humanism, which the Weifert family practiced, a broader picture of the success of an industry and its workforce emerged: this picture begins with the interaction of distant nations and concludes with modernization.
Craft Brewing and the Role of the Weifert Family in the Industrialization of Beer Brewing in Serbia (1717–1918)
Abstract
From the second decade of the 18th century onward, the production of beer in Banat and northern Serbia was established and developed primarily by German entrepreneurs. In Pančevo and Belgrade, manual beer production became an important activity, and its growth and decline were influenced by political and economic conditions. After the establishment of several breweries that can be traced in historical sources, the Weifert family ventured into beer production in the mid-19th century, choosing these two cities as their primary centres of operation. Through strategic business decisions, substantial investments and education, the Weifert family quickly replaced manual production with machinery and transformed the craft into an industry.
By investing in the construction and expansion of buildings, acquiring modern machinery, focusing on personal education, and hiring skilled personnel trained in German brewing schools, the family enabled the breweries in Pančevo and Belgrade to achieve stable growth. In the lead-up to World War I, the most renowned member of the family, Georg Weifert, one of the most significant businessmen in Serbia, managed the breweries. Based on the analysis of original archival materials and literature, the authors in this article depict the development of brewing over a period of two centuries (1717–1918), with a special focus on the Weifert family’s role in transforming the craft into a modern industry.
[i] Habsburg Serbia had around 40,000 inhabitants in 1723, and Banat 30,000–50,000 inhabitants. Dušan J. Popović: Srbi u Banatu do kraja osamnaestog veka [Serbs in Banat until the End of the Eighteenth Century]. Beograd 1955, p. 50; Josef Wolf: Entwicklung der ethnischen Struktur des Banats 1890–1991. Wien 2004, pp. 30–32; Zoltan Đere: Skica promena etničkog sastava stanovništva na tlu današnje Vojvodine 1526–1910 [Sketch of the Changes in the Ethnic Composition of the Population in Today’s Vojvodina 1526–1910]. In: Istraživanja [Research], 15 (2004), pp. 105–123, here: p. 111.
[ii] Slavko Gavrilović: Problemi privredne istorije Vojvodine od kraja XVII do sredine XIX veka [Problems of the Economic History of Vojvodina from the End of the 17th to the Mid-19th Century]. In: Acta historico-oeconomica Iugoslaviae, 6 (1979), pp. 121–135, here: p. 126.
[iii] On the settlement of Germans, relations, and interaction with Serbs (including gastronomy), as well as a broader review of the literature on colonization, see Karl Kraushaar: Kurzgefaßte Geschichte des Banates und der deutschen Ansiedler. Wien 1923, pp. 96–98; Imre Wellmann: Die erste Epoche der Neubesiedlung Ungarns nach der Türkenzeit (1711–1761). In: Acta Historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 26 (1980) 3/4, pp. 241–307; Erik Roth: Die planmässig angelegten Siedlungen im Deutsch-Banater Militärgrenzbezirk 1765–1821. München 1988; Mathias Beer, Dittmar Dahlmann (eds.): Migration nach Ost- und Sudosteuropa vom 18. bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts: Ursachen – Formen – Verlauf – Ergebnis. Stuttgart 1999; Zoran Janjetović: Nemci u Vojvodini [Germans in Vojvodina]. Beograd 2009, pp. 29–30, pp. 41–80; Zlatoje Martinov: Nemački uticaji na ishranu Srba u Banatu [German Influences on the Diet of Serbs in Banat]. Pančevo 22004, pp. 78–79, pp. 90–91; Borislav Jankulov: Pregled kolonizacije Vojvodine u XVIII i XIX veku [Overview of the Colonization of Vojvodina in the 18th and 19th centuries]. Novi Sad 1961, pp. 7–44, pp. 81–87; Branko Bešlin: Nemci u Banatu [Germans in Banat]. In: Banat kroz vekove [Banat through the Ages]. Beograd 2010, pp. 621–645.
[iv] Köppisch opened a brewery in Timişoara/Temeschwar/Temesvár/Temišvar in 1717.
[v] Felix Milleker: Porodica Weifert i pivara u Pančevu od 1722/3–1923 [The Weifert Family and the Brewery in Pančevo since 1722/3–1923]. Pančevo, Beograd 2009, pp. 39–41; Marija Koršoš, Oktavijan Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu 1722–1972 [The Brewery in Pančevo]. Pančevo 22012, pp. 18–20.
[vi] The brewery had two rooms and a kitchen with a pantry, a vaulted cellar, and an attic used as a grain warehouse. It was equipped with a copper kettle (1,698.15 litres), had a hop storage area, a malt drying facility, a refrigeration room, a fermenting room, as well as containers for storage and transportation. It also had other auxiliary buildings, equipment, tools, and materials, and there were 930 measures (approximately 970 litres) of good malt found. Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 20–23.
[vii] Ibid., p. 24.
[viii] On November 1, 1745, Kratzeisen was the first to lease the brewery in Bečkerek for 150 florins, and in 1758, he also leased the brewery in Zemun. The initial lessee of the Zemun brewery was Johann Christoph Schmidt, followed by Christoph Fichtner, and after his death, Kratzeisen. Historical Archives of Belgrade, Zemun Magistrate (IAB, ZM), 1784: 1398; Milan Đukanov: Od Krajcajzena do današnjih dana [From Kratzeisen to Today]. In: Dvestopedeset godina Zrenjaninske pivare [250 years of Zrenjanin’s Brewery]. Zrenjanin 1995, pp. 11–74, here: pp. 26–28, p. 36; Branko Najhold: Hronika Zemuna od praistorije do 1871 [Chronicle of Zemun from Prehistory until 1871]. Zemun 1998, p. 131, p. 285.
[ix] Milleker: Porodica Weifert, pp. 43–44; Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 24–26. Josef Kratzen and his wife, Ewa gave their daughter, Franciska (who had the same name as her aunt) in marriage to a Greek-born goldsmith who had settled in Zemun, Constantine Hadja, Sr., who in 1793 purchased the brewery from his father-in-law. IAB, ZM, 1793: 1527; Najhold: Hronika Zemuna, p. 307, p. 325, p. 500, p. 504, p. 582; Nenad Lukić: Three Centuries of Beer–Making in Belgrade. Beograd 2019, p. 31.
[x] Historical Archives of Pančevo (IAP), Magistrate of the Municipal City of Pančevo, 1794–1918 (fund 4), no. 2996 (1799).
[xi] Anna had a son, Ignaz Haißer, and a daughter, Magdalena (1797–1871), the future mother of Ignaz Weifert.
[xii] Ljubomir Nenadović: O zdravstvenim prilikama u Pančevu [On Health Conditions in Pančevo]. Pančevo 1891, p. 85; Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 27–33, p. 37; Milleker: Porodica Weifert, p. 46; Nikola Koneski: Ignjat Vajfert. In: Informator 25 (2019), pp. 51–104, here: p. 72.
[xiii] Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 32–35, p. 47.
[xiv] Dušan J. Popović: Građa za istoriju Beograda 1711–1739 [Materials for the History of Belgrade 1711–1739]. In: Spomenik [Monument], LXXVIII, II (1935) 61, pp. 109–282, here: pp. 114–238.
[xv] Serbs produced beer (known as “alovina” or “olovina”) in the Middle Ages. Stojan Novaković: Pivo u Srbiji u XIII. i XIV. veku [Beer in Serbia in the 13th and 14th centuries]. In: Glas Srpske kraljevske akademije [Gazette of the Serbian Royal Academy], 86 (1911), pp. 151–166.
[xvi] Fifteen names appear as brewers and brew masters, but it is likely that one person is listed in three different ways (Andreas Hainisch, Heinisch, and Henrich). Popović: Građa za istoriju Beograda, pp. 114–238.
[xvii] Gulden, florin, forint, Austrian silver currency that, according to the Leipziger Fuß, was worth about 12.9 grams of silver. Eduard Döring: Handbuch der Münz, Wechsel, Mass und Gewichtskunde. Coblenz 1854, p. 18.
[xviii] In the sources, his brother Jakob is mentioned, but explicitly only as the user of the house, while in the quote about the lessee of the inn, it only mentions “Jud Köppisch”. Other brewers are mentioned, such as Peter Weegmann (died in 1721) and Antoni Weber, but as residents of Belgrade, not as lessees. Popović: Građa za istoriju Beograda, pp. 113–114, pp. 129–130, p. 151, p. 163, p. 168, pp. 171–172, p. 183, p. 187, pp. 192–193, p. 222, p. 231, p. 240, p. 243.
[xix] D. R[anković]: Prve pivare u Beogradu [The First Breweries in Belgrade]. In: Politika, 19 August 1937. In Banat, a new leasing system was introduced in 1733, and it was no longer paid upfront but based on production (24 kreuzers, equivalent to 6.4 silver groschen, per bucket of beer). It is not clear why the fee in Belgrade was 2.3 times higher. In Austria, during the 18th century, 1 grosch was worth 3.75 kreuzers, and in the 19th century 3 kreuzers. On money and measures: Döring: Handbuch der Münz, p. 446, pp. 487–505. Viennese liquid measures: a beer barrel (Bier-Fass – 113.21 litres) contains two beer buckets (kofa or akov in Serbian) (Eimer – 56.60 l), a bucket contains 40 measures (oka in Serbian) (Maß – 1.41 l), a measure contains 4 mugs (Seidel – 0.35 l).
[xx] M[ilan] Đ. Milićević: Crtice za raniju sliku srpske prestonice [Sketches for an Earlier Image of the Serbian Capital]. In: Godišnjica Nikole Čupića [Nikola Čupić’s Anniversary] XXII (1903), pp. 5–56, here: p. 42.
[xxi] M[ilan]. Đ. Milićević: Slave u Srba [Slavas among the Serbs]. Godišnjica Nikole Čupića I (1877), pp. 89–162, here: p. 119.
[xxii] Peštansko-budimski skoroteča [The Pest-Buda Gazette], 10 September 1842, p. 7; Šumadinka, 18 August 1856; Milićević: Crtice za raniju sliku, p. 28; R[anković]: Prve pivare u Beogradu, p. 6.
[xxiii] Srbske novine (also: Novine srbske and Srbske novine) [Serbian Gazette]), 7 April 1845 and 12 April 1846; R[anković]: Prve pivare u Beogradu, p. 6.
[xxiv] Srpske novine, 3 September and 16 October 1848.
[xxv] From 1840, taverns and beer houses were subject to a tax on the sale of beer (0.005 dinars for a measure of 1.3 litres), similarly to the tax on wine, collected in favour of the municipalities. In 1852, breweries were also subjected to a tax on production and sales of 60 paras (0.12 dinars) per bucket. However, through the intervention of the Austrian consul, who pointed out that Austria did not impose such a tax on Serbia, the tax was abolished in 1854. To finance the war against the Ottomans (1876–1878), a special excise duty was imposed on beer in 1877 as the only domestic product (2 dinars per 100 kg). Over time, this tax increased significantly, and beer remained permanently burdened by a luxury tax. Novine srbske, 22 June 1840; Srbske novine, 7 September 1854, 20 June 1882; Policijski glasnik [Police Gazette], 29 August 1904, p. 266; Zbornik zakona i uredaba izdanih u Knjažestvu Srbiji [Collection of Laws and Regulations issued in the Principality of Serbia] 31 (1877), pp. 28–33; Ibid. 32 (1878), pp. 105–120; Ibid., 34 (1878/79), pp. 36–38, pp. 303–314; Boško Mijatović: Istorija državnih finansija Srbije [The History of State Finances of Serbia] 1876–1895. Beograd 2021, p. 58.
[xxvi] R[anković]: Prve pivare u Beogradu, p. 6.
[xxvii] Death data in: Banater Post, Organ für Politik, soziale und volkswirthschaftliche Interessen (Pancsova), Nr. 84, 20. October 1887.
[xxviii] Saša Ilić, Sonja Jerković, Vladimir Bulajić: Georg Weifert – Visionary and Enthusiast (1850–1937). Belgrade 2010, pp. 7–8, pp. 15–17; Koneski: Ignjat Vajfert, p. 54.
[xxix] After her death, he married Sophia Gruber, the aunt of his son Georg’s wife.
[xxx] There is diverse information in the literature about the way and the time the Weifert family acquired the brewery. It seems that Georg, Sr. was not involved in brewing, but some kind of an agreement with Ignaz Haißer must have existed, as he sent his oldest son to learn the brewing trade, while he reserved his craft for his second son, Karl. As to the year of the founding of the brewery, Ignaz later stated in advertisements that it was established in 1840. Ilić, Jerković, Bulajić: Georg Weifert, pp. 17–18; Veselinka Marković: Pivara u Pančevu [Brewery in Pančevo] (1722–1946). In: Rad Muzeja Vojvodine [Works of the Museum of Vojvodina] 53 (2011), pp. 169–177, here: p. 174; Koneski: Ignjat Vajfert, p. 72.
[xxxi] Depending on the fermentation temperature, beers can be classified as ale and lager. In the case of ale, yeast ferments at higher temperatures (15.5–24°C) and forms a layer of foam on the surface (top fermentation). Lager beers ferment at lower temperatures (around 4–10°C), processing complex sugars, such as raffinose, that arise during fermentation. The yeast settles at the bottom of the beer (bottom fermentation). The temperature range for fermentation can vary in the literature. See Nejib Guizani, Ann Mothershaw: Fermentation as Method for Food Preservation. In: Mohammad Shafiur Rahman (ed.): Handbook of Food Preservation. London, New York 22007, pp. 215–236, here: p. 221; Christine P. Rhodes (ed.): The Encyclopedia of Beer. New York 1995, p. 197, pp. 287–288. More on the history of beer and brewing in: Ian S. Hornsey: A History of Beer and Brewing. Cambridge 2003.
[xxxii] Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 37–39, pp. 45–46; Koneski: Ignjat Vajfert, pp. 64–67, pp. 74–75.
[xxxiii] Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 47–48; Saša Ilić, Sonja Jerković, Vladimir Bulajić: Weifert in Serbien (1873–1937). In: Serben und Deutsche im 20. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden 2015, pp. 27–54, here: pp. 30–31.
[xxxiv] According to the Julian calendar, which was officially in use in Serbia until 1919, that date corresponds to 19th January. This calendar was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar in the 19th century and 13 days behind in the 20th century. In this work, the old calendar has been used when quoting sources.
[xxxv] Due to Austria’s unfavourable trade balance with the Ottoman Empire from the mid-18th century onward, it was not uncommon for businesspeople to develop their activities south of the Sava and Danube rivers. Najhold: Hronika Zemuna, p. 300, p. 498, p. 582.
[xxxvi] Ilić, Jerković, Bulajić: Georg Weifert, pp. 17–18.
[xxxvii] Grosch (groš) was a monetary unit of account in Serbia until 1879. It was divided into 40 para and had two exchange rates: a fiscal rate (for paying the [Ottoman] Porte tax) and a commercial rate (for internal trade and statistics), in a ratio of approximately 1:2. When the dinar was introduced, an exchange rate of 5 groschen for 1 dinar was established, which we have adhered to in this work, although researchers suggest that a more economically realistic ratio would be 4.5:1. The dinar was equivalent to the French franc. Srpske novine, 19 December 1878; Boško Mijatović: Kretanje cena u Srbiji [The Movement of Prices in Serbia] 1862–1910. In: Radni dokumenti iz ekonomske istorije [Working Papers in Economic History], Beograd 2021, pp. 3–4, <https://www.clds.rs/newsite/Indeks_cena_Srbija_1862.pdf>, 15.3.2024.
[xxxviii] Srbske novine, 23 January 1865; 28 January–18 February 1865; 20 February–20 March 1865.
[xxxix] During the first census in 1834, Belgrade had just over 7,000 inhabitants, and by the year 1900, it had grown to 69,100 residents.
[xl] The average price of wine in 1869 was around 120 groschen (24 dinars) for a load of 130 litres (0.18 dinars per litter). Slivovitz, on the other hand, was priced at about 0.24 dinars per litre, which was nearly identical to the price of beer (0.24 dinars in Belgrade and 0.25 dinars per litre in Serbia). Srpske novine, 1 January 1874; Državopis Srbije [National Register of Serbia] VII, Beograd 1873.
[xli] In the hall, important public gatherings had been held earlier, and even after the cessation of beer production, numerous events, speeches, balls etc. were organized. Srb(p)ske novine, 3 June 1854; 8, 10 and 15 July 1869; 11 March 1871; 24 January 1876; 9 February 1876; 8 October 1882 etc.; R[anković]: Prve pivare u Beogradu, p. 6; Milićević: Crtice za raniju sliku, p. 28.
[xlii] Srpske novine, 30 March 1872.
[xliii] Težak. Ilustrovani list za poljsku privredu [Illustrierte Zeitschrift für Landwirtschaft], 15 October 1871.
[xliv] IAP, fund 4, no. 5568 (1863); Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 38–47, p. 51; Milleker: Porodica Weifert, pp. 48–49; Anica Draganić, Maria Silađi: Shadows and Silhouettes of Industrial Past of Vojvodina. Novi Sad, Budapest 2018, p. 66. An important source for studying the activities of the Weifert family, apart from the archives, was presented by the local German-language press in Pančevo. It has not been preserved in its entirety, and the reports were not always favourable to the Weiferts. See: “Herr I. M. Weifert”, Banater Post, No. 16, 23 February 1873, as well as other issues of that newspaper, the daily that preceded it, the Neues Pancsovaer Wochenblatt (1870–1872), and the daily that succeeded it in 1890, the Donau-Temes-Bote.
[xlv] In Hungary, at the end of the 19th century, beer production amounted to about 600,000 hectolitres per year. Sándor Vilmos: Nagyipari fejlődés Magyarországon [The Development of Large-Scale Industry in Hungary] 1867–1900. Budapest 1954, p. 335.
[xlvi] Nenadović: O zdravstvenim prilikama, p. 85; Milleker: Porodica Weifert, p. 47; Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 50–5; Anders E. B. Blomqvist: Economic Nationalizing in the Ethnic Borderlands of Hungary and Romania (1867–1944). Stockholm 2014, p. 63. Industrialization did not only affect the spatial organization of the brewery but also indirectly influenced the urban structure of the city. Thanks to the public facilities, the brewery became the center of social life. Anica I. Tufegdžić: Tri veka vojvođanskih pivara. Kontekst i kontinuitet [Three Centuries of Vojvodina Breweries. Context and Continuity]. Belgrade, University of Belgrade, Diss., 2014, pp. 2–3, pp. 30–31.
[xlvii] He was the president of the electoral board of that party in Pančevo. Zastava [The Flag], 1 June 1884.
[xlviii] IAP, fund 4, no. 492 (1855); Koneski: Ignjat Vajfert, p. 84, pp. 69–70, pp. 90–92; Nikola Vučo: Razvoj industrije u Srbiji u XIX veku [The Development of Industry in Serbia in the 19th Century]. Beograd 1981, p. 284; Milorad Mitrašinović: Valjevska pivara 1860–1947 [The Brewery of Valjevo 1860–1947]. In: Valjevska pivara [The Brewery of Valjevo] 1860–2000. Valjevo 2000, pp. 13–160, here: pp. 18–22, pp. 150–153.
[xlix] Koršoš, Trifu: Pivara u Pančevu, pp. 52–53.
[l] Ibid., p. 55.
[li] Srpske novine, 11 and 23 September 1871; 30 March 1872; Vreme [The Time], 22 July 1931; Nenad M. Lukić: Prva srpska parna pivara Đorđa Vajferta [Đorđe Vajfert’s First Serbian Steam Brewery] (1873–1947). In: Godišnjak grada Beograda [Yearbook of the City of Belgrade] LIX (2012), pp. 81–127, here: pp. 82–83.
[lii] It was a prestigious school that evolved into the Königlich Bayerische Akademie für Landwirtschaft und Brauerei in 1895 and became part of the Technical University of Munich.
[liii] Težak, 15 November 1874; Otadžbina, VII, 21, 1889, p. 470; M. Krstić: Najstarija i najmodernija naša pivara [Our Oldest and Most Modern Brewery]. In: Vreme, 22 June 1931; Ilić, Jerković, Bulajić: Georg Weifert, pp. 17–20.
[liv] Jos. S. Raušer: Naš ječam i slad od njega [Our Barley and Malt from it]. In: Srpski tehnički list [Serbian Technical Journal] I (1890) 1/2, p. 15; Srpske novine, 18 February 1905; Vreme, 22 July 1931; Nikola Vučo: Pivara Đorđa Vajferta [Đorđe Vajfert’s Brewery]. In: Godišnjak grada Beograda XXIX (1982), pp. 53–59, here: p. 53. Average prices for the period between 1888 and 1908 in: Statistički godišnjak Kraljevine Srbije [Statistical yearbook of the Kingdom of Serbia] 12 (1913), p. 390.
[lv] Srpske novine, 15 November 1874; 19 March 1887; Nedelja: ilustrovan nedeljni zabavnik [Sunday: An Illustrated Weekly Entertainer] 18 (1909); Trgovačko-zanatlijski šematizam Kraljevine Srbije [Trade and Craft Schematism of the Kingdom of Serbia]. Beograd 1900, p. 543; Pravda [Justice], 22 March 1909.
[lvi] Statistički godišnjak Kraljevine Srbije 1 (1895), p. 165; Ibid., 12 (1913), p. 437; Vučo: Pivara Đorđa Vajferta, pp. 53–54.
[lvii] Ilić, Jerković, Bulajić: Georg Weifert, p. 22.
[lviii] Archives of Yugoslavia, Ministry of Trade, and Industry (AJ-65)-483-1201, Basic data of the First Serbian Steam Brewery, 1934; Vreme, 22 July 1931.
[lix] Weifert’s exposure to mining ignited a special passion in him, and he was responsible for the opening of numerous mines, including the most significant copper mine in Bor today. Ilić, Jerković, Bulajić: Georg Weifert, pp. 31–44.
[lx] He rose to the top of the Serbian business elite, being a co-owner of several industrial and financial enterprises, a member of the management of various business organizations, and a member of the board of the National Bank from its establishment in 1884. He also held the position of governor of the National Bank for the longest term. Ibid.
[lxi] Organizations for the protection, support, or education of deaf and mute children, women, the sick, the disabled, the impoverished, war orphans, singing societies, firefighters, cyclists, and more. Ibid., pp. 61–73.
[lxii] Saša Ilić, Sonja Jerković: Vajfert nije Vajfert. Identitet skulpture Anibala de Lota [Weifert is Not Weifert: The Identity of the Statue by Annibale De Lotto]. In: Nasleđe [Heritage] XV (2014), pp. 169–180, here: p. 176.